NOTES FIRM 3-4 HISTORY FORM THREE NOTES
TOPIC: 1
ESTABLISHMENT
OF COLONIALISMIN
AFRICA
What is colonialism? Colonialism
simply cane be defined as the situation whereby powerful nation or state
dominate a weak nation in all sphere of life. This means that, socially,
economically and politically. African states were dominated by whites powerful states like German, British,
Italy and France. African colonialism stated early around 15th
century during the interaction of Africa with out sider but it gained momentum
around 19th century. So Africa colonialism stated around 19th
century after Berlin conference
of 1884-85 that officially
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
Even before the
19th century or 1800 AD, Africa and its interior were not known
to the outside World. The interior of the African continent was exposed to the
European World after the work of explorers, traders and missionaries. Europeans
took interest in Africa’s strategic areas with fertile land, minerals,
navigable rivers and many more areas that they could easily exploit. Reports of
the existence of snow-capped
mountains in the interior of Africa and the inhuman slave trade activities also
attracted great interest in the continent.
By the 1880's,
many European capitalist nations rushed and grabbed parts of the African
continent claiming that they were their areas of influence.
Scramble for simply
is the fighting for gain strategic areas) or is the act of rushing and grabbing parts of Africa’s land
and occupying them to the extent of nearly fighting among the each other.
Partition is the act of dividing a large area into small parts or
portions. So, partition of Africa meant dividing the continent among the
imperialist powers.
European
capitalist powers partitioned the African continent among themselves during
the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 under the chairmanship of the German Chancellor Otto Von
Bismarck, without involving the Africans. \
CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF
AFRICA
The scramble for
and partition of Africa which occurred in the 1880s was due to economic,
political and social factors that faced most of the European nations at that
time such as:
1. Development of capitalism on Europe
from industries to monopoly stage in 1870’s this created the demand of, New
markets, More raw materials, Area to invest their capital, Cheap labour, Area
to dump unemployed white men
2. National prestige The possession of colonies was considered as a symbol of greatness
and respect. For example Germany and Italy struggled for colonies with the aim
of acquiring national prestige.
3. Balance of power. The balance of power was disrupted by Franco- Prussian war of
1870-1871 [was between France and Germany]. Germany rose to power after
defeating France and seizing her provinces like Alsace for production of coal
and Lorraine for iron. There after France began to scramble for colonies in
order to regain its power and compensate for the lost provinces.
4. The growth of European nationalism
especially in Germany and Italy in 1870-1871
This was union of various small European states which were ruled
by princes into bigger empires. In Germany the unification was made under OTTO
VON BISMARK while in Italy was created by VICTOR
EMANNUEL. This unification made their countries to praise their culture and
declared a mission to civilize other cultures hence Germany and Italy rushed to
scramble for colonies in Africa.
5. Strategic importance of
some areas in the African continent, such as :-Egypt Was scrambled for by British and France because of the use of the
Suez Canal as a short cut and getaway to the British colony of India and the
Indian Ocean where France monopolized sugar production.
South Africa
Because the British and the Dutch exploit Gold and Diamonds.
The Congo basin
Scramble for by Belgium, France and also Portugal because of
minerals like Gold and Copper. Navigable Rivers, Fertile soil for production of
rubber and High population for creation of market labor
Niger Valley
European powers, French, British and German scrambled for because
of navigation, agriculture and high population.
7. Berlin conference; this conference
stimulated the scramble for because each power exerted a colony proportionally.
8. Role played by
missionaries, explores and traders.
9. Abolition Of Slave
Trade/Claims to stop slave trade and spread.
10. Humanitarian factor,
this has been given by European nation’s historians that, they scrambled for
the African continent in order to civilize African societies.
REASONS FOR SOME AREAS IN AFRICA TO EXPERIENCE
MORE INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE THAN OTHERS
Through this shows
that there were different areas which were scrambled for by European powers,
the reasons for some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than
others are as follows:
1. Fertile land
These areas which seemed to have a fertile land like Zimbabwe and
some parts of Kenya like the kikuyu highlands experienced more intensive
scramble than other areas.
2.
Minerals
Minerals also made some areas in Africa to experience more
intensive scramble than others; For example South Africa, this region was
scrambled by the Dutch(Boers) and the British. The Dutch landed at the cape
under the Dutch East India Company in 1962. In 1795 the British conquered the
Dutch East India Company at the Cape. After a while the Dutch-Boers migrated
Northwards during the Great Boers Trek. Eventually they settled in the Orange
Free State and Transvaal. The Orange Free State had diamonds which was
discovered in 1867 while Transvaal’s gold was discovered in 1885.
3.
Navigable water
Example Suez Canal and Congo Basin are some areas which
experienced more intensive scramble. For example the Congo Basin was scrambled
for by Belgium, Britain, France and Portugal. And Suez Canal was scrambled for
by both the British and the French.
4.
Large population
These areas which were having large population also experienced
more intensive scramble example Congo basin had high population for markets.
Therefore the Europeans only scrambled for areas with those characteristics
mentioned above. And these areas which were scrambled and eventually
partitioned by the Europeans, had economic importance to the European powers.
THE IMPACT OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION
OF AFRICA
The partition of East Africa become complete in 1890 after the
Anglo German Agreement of 1890. Therefore, the partition of East Africa brought
the following effects.
1. It necessitated the
calling of the Berlin conference; this shows that after the scramble for
and partition it was calling for the Berlin conference which was led by the
Germany counselor Bismarck so as to make sure that they divide the African
continent peacefully.
2. Led to the occurrence of
the 1st world war of 1914 because some imperialist nations, the Germany
were not satisfied with the number of colonies they had this caused conflicts
among the imperialist nations hence occurrence of both the 1 st and 2 nd world
war.
3. Dar-es- Salaam and Mombasa became as importation main parts for
both British and Germans. However Dar-es-Salaam who custom Head house of
German.
4. From 1890 respectively Zanzibar and Uganda become the British
protectorates
5. German took Tanganyika with its base in Dar-es-Salaam.
6. These treaties culminated in the prelude to Colonialism.
7. Led to the exploitation
of natural resources in East Africa.
8. Intensive oppression and harassment/humiliation in East Africa by
British and Germans.
9. These treaties culminated in the prelude of colonialism.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE
[1884-1885]
T he Berlin conference was the meeting of European powers which
was held in Berlin the capital town of Germany from November 1884 to February
1885 at the invitation of Otto von Bismarck the chancellor of
Germany. The conference was attended by the 14 powers, where USA and
Denmark attended as observers.
THE OBJECTIVES (GOALS) OF THE
CONFERENCE WERE:
1. To solve the Congo and Niger problems.
2. Need of Bismarck to diverge France’s interest from France to
Africa.
3. To develop Africa for imperialism.
4. To discuss views from different European nations on how to
abolish the slave trade in the African territories.
THE RESOLUTIONS / AGREEMENTS / PRINCIPLES OF
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE WERE:
1. Principle of notification. Each power which claimed any part of
African territory was required to inform the other European power that had
signed the treaty in order to avoid crushes among themselves.
2. Principle of effective occupation or control. European power
which claims to any part of Africa would be recognized by the other powers if
it was effectively occupied by such European power lie under this clause. The
claimants were supposed to develop the areas through their missionaries trading
companies’ explorers starting plantations and other economic activities.
3. King Leopold was allowed to rule Congo, but the Congo river was
left to be a free zone for all nations. In this case the basin was an
international highway.
4. Freedom of navigation. The conference declared that Congo, the
Niger River and other big rivers as free zones for international navigation
i.e. Niger River under the authority of Great Britain and Congo River under the
authority of Belgium.
5. Abolition of slave trade. Each European power which attended
the meeting had to abolish the slave trade in African territory and should
further extend its sphere of influence from the coastal regions to the internal
land and draw political boundaries.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BERLIN CONFERENCE
1. It resolved the international rivalries that ivoted in areas
like Congo, Egypt and Nile.
2. It speeded the partition of Africa under the principle of
effective occupation.
3. The Conference highligtened the unity and degree of cooperation
among European powers.
4. The Conference opened the interior of African land for
colonization.
5. it avoided the possibility of the emperior powers to inter into
war during the scramble for Africa.
6. It led to the setting of colonial boundaries in African
Continent.
EFFECT OF PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA
1. The conflicts erupted between the religious groups such as the
CMS (the church missionary society) the Bangereza or British
participants. The white fathers (French Roman Catholics) or
Bafaranca and Swahili traders (coastal Arabs and Kiswahili traders) who were
being supported by the Kabaka and the traditionalists. The CMS entered in
Buganda in 1877. The white fathers in 1879 both needed to spread Protestantism
or Catholicism in Buganda. But they were opposed by the Muslims Arabs who had
warned the Kabaka about the dangers of European missionaries, to respond Kabaka
executed three believers of the CMS in 1885 including Bishop Hunnington.
2. In 1886 the government of the Kabaka killed about 30 converts
at the court after refusing to drop their Christian faith as a result the CMS
appealed to the British and whitefathers to the French government to penetrate
and protect them hence the scramble for Africa.
3. An attempt to establish a Belgium empire from the coast of East
Africa to the Congo basin from 1876 to 1889 by sending expeditions threatened
the British and the Germans who were already in East Africa. In 1876 king
Leopard formed the international Africa association trade, established
Christianity civilization and control trade in the Congo region. Britain and
Germany immediately pushed for East Africa to avoid it from falling under the
control of king Leopold II of Belgium.
4. The need for raw materials and markets by Germany and Britain
made them scramble for colonies in East Africa. Both Germany and Britain were
industrialized countries demanding for raw materials, markets, areas for
investments and cheap labour of which could be obtained in Africa hence the
struggle to scramble for.
5. Trade. Both powers needed to occupy Zanzibar and large parts of
the interior for trading interests. Among the commercial companies were
such as the Germany with the company and the British East African association
of 1887 these companies competed with each other.
6. British rule over Zanzibar began in 1890, while in Uganda and
Kenya was in 1894 and was then refered as British East Africa).
7. Germany took Tanganyika including Dar es Salaam and bought the
Coastal 10 strips from Zanzibar.
8. Dar-es-Salaam and Mombasa became important main ports and were
linked with railway to the interior.
9. Two agreements (Anglo German of 1886 & 1890) eliminated in
the prelude to colonialism.
STEPS WHICH WERE TAKEN IN THE PARTITION
The Powers Signed two Agreements or Treaties which included;
1. The
Anglo - Germany Agreement or Delimitation Treaty of 1886.
In this agreement the two powers agreed on the following matters;
A. They defined the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kismay,
Brava, Mogadishu and Warshekh as the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar plus
10mile coastal trip to Witu.
B. The region between the river Tana and river Ruvuma was divided
by boundary to the Umba River to Lake Victoria.
C. The Northern half of (modern Kenya) became a British sphere of
influence while the southern half becomes the Germany sphere of influence.
D. Germany was given Witu the coastline of Kenya up to Kipini
river in Kenya.
The rivalry between the two powers continued because the western
boundaries were not drawn between Tanganyika and Kenya.
The competition for the control of Uganda began due to its fertility,
high population and being the source of river Nile. Britain feared
that if Germany controlled Uganda her stay there would be in danger. At the
same time Karl Peter’s of Germany trade treaties with Kabaka Mwanga and the
chief Nabongo Sekwanga Mumia in western Kenya, therefore the rivalry between
them led to another agreement.
2. The
Helgoland Treaty of 1890
In this agreement the two powers agreed on the following matters;
1. Germany recognized Uganda and Kenya as British spheres of
influence.
2. Germany recognized Zanzibar as the British protectorate and the
rest of the sultan’s dominions.
3. Germany lost the Witu which became under British possession in
Kenya. In compensation for Witu Germany was given Helgoland an island off the
coast of Germany in the north sea to use it as a military base.
4. Germany continued to control Tanganyika and she acquired ten
miles coastal strip from the sultan of Zanzibar by buying the area as
compensation to the sultan for the possession, then the German controlled ports
of Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es salaam, Kilwa and Mikindani and other parts of
Tanganyika.
5. The western boundaries between Tanganyika, Uganda and Kenya
were defined. Uganda became a British protectorate.
The Anglo-Belgian treaty of 1891 defined the south western Uganda. Therefore Germany
controlled Rwanda and Burundi.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
COLONIALISM AND AFRICAN REACTION
Colonialism is the situation where by one country dominates or
rule another country socially, politically, economically and culturally. Most
African countries were colonized by European countries after the Berlin
conference except Ethiopia and Liberia. African countries lost their
independence, sovereignty and control over their own matters after being
colonized.
Therefore during the imposition of colonial rule it was not easy
for colonialists to penetrate into the interior of Africa because;
1. Africans were not ready to be colonized.
2. Africans had their own systems of governance.
3. Africans had their own system of social, political, economic
and culture.
4. Africans had a strong leadership and army which strongly
protected their state etc.
THE METHODS / WAYS OF ESTABLISHING COLONIAL RULE
There are various ways or methods/tactics employed/ used by colonialist to
impose / establish colonial rule in Africa are as follows;
1. Diplomacy method [signing of treaties]
2. The use of force [military conquest] violence.
3. Alliance or collaboration
4. Administrative technique e.g Direct rule, indirect rule and
Assimilation.
5. Ideological methods e.g Introduction of Western Education,
Western civilization racism and introduction of Christianity.
6. The use of infrastructures and communication Media.
7. Economic technique e.g Destruction of Industries, this was done
by importing ready manufactured goods from abroad e.g clothes, beards, wine.
The techniques / tactics / methods or ways mentioned above were
applied or used in imposing/establishing colonialism because the colonialists
find some difficulties since Africans were not ready to be colonized therefore
they applied these tactics as follows;
1. The
Diplomacy Method [the signing of treaties]
This method was the method of signing bogus treaties done by
colonialist with African local rulers which cheated Africans to accept colonial
control. African local leaders signed those treaties without understanding
their meaning because they did not know how to read and write. After
signing the treaties African local leaders would find their areas colonized.
For example; Karl Peters signed many treaties with chief Mangungo of Msovero,
Kilosa, Usangara and Uluguru. Stanley signed treaties with king
Lobengula of Ndebele [Zimbabwe].
2. Military Conquest / Use of
Force
Military conquest was a method/way of imposing /establishing colonial
rule where by colonialist used military force such as army, soldiers, police
etc to force Africans to accept colonial rule when the diplomacy method/way
failed. For example Germany used force /violence/ military conquest to force
Mkwawa of the Hehe to accept colonial control in his territory.
3. Alliance or Collaboration
This was another technique/ way or method of imposing/establishing
colonial rule where by colonialists united or cooperated with some societies
which had enmity by supporting one side to defeat the other then colonize all
together.
AFRICAN REACTION AGAINST IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE
Despite of colonialists to use different rules/ methods/ tactics
or techniques or ways to impose [establish] colonial rule; Still during
imposition of colonial rule in Africa, the Africans reacted or opposed
colonialism. because Africans were not ready to be under colonial control.
THE WAYS / GROUP OF REACTIONS
There were two ways of reaction against imposition of colonial
rule and these were;
1. Collaboration [ alliance]
2. Resistance
These two groups of reaction against imposition of colonial rule
depended on the following;
The Nature of African Reaction against
Colonial Rule
1. The military structure and the strength of the society.
2. The nature of leader ship i.e. strong or weak.
3. The nature of the colonialists i.e. aggressive or friendly.
4. The nature of exploitation and oppression made Africans to use
collaboration or resistance.
5. The level of interference in social, political and economic
interest made Africans to react or not.
6. The nature of population [African societies] for example the
size of the population, unity among the people etc.
1. COLLABORATION / ALLIANCE
Collaboration was a way of reacting against imposition of colonial
rule where by African societies cooperated with Europeans
invaders. African societies used the method to oppose colonial rule
by welcoming or making cooperation with the colonialists against indigenous
[fellow] enemies and conducting treaties so as to get support and preserve
their interests against their enemies. Therefore collaboration simply means,
Africans welcomed Europeans in order to get their support. For example Maasai,
Buganda and Lozi collaborated with colonialists as the way to avoid their
control.
THE REASONS WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES
COLLABORATED WITH COLONIALISTS
1. Poor / weak military power. Some societies had poor military
power compared to the colonialists; therefore they decided to cooperate with
them in the opposing manner.
2. Poor leadership. Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate
with colonialists because they had poor or weak leaders who were not militant
confident to fight against colonial rule.
3. To fight against their fellow Africans. Some African societies
collaborated with colonial rule invaders so as to get assistance to fight their
fellow enemies who were strong militarily. For example Sangu, Bena and Yao
collaborated with the Germany against Mkwawa of the Hehe.
4. To get military / weapon support. African societies
collaborated with colonialists because they wanted to get strong military
weapons to defend their territories i.e. Nambongo Mumia of Wanga and Kabaka
Mutesa collaborated with the British to get strong arms.
5. Fear and to promote peace and harmony. Some societies in Africa
decided to cooperate with colonialists due to the desire of maintenance of
peace and harmony and avoiding warfare.
6. Ignorance. Ignorance of some Africans especially rulers
[leaders] who did not understand the mission [intention] of colonialists
through given gifts, fooled and persuaded them to sign bogus treaties For
example chief Mangungo of Msovero Kilosa signed a bogus treaty with Karl
peters. King Lobengula of shone and Ndebele signed bogus treaties with John
Moffat
7. Natural problems such as calamities/ disaster. Some societies
in Africa suffered a lot with natural calamities such as drought, floods hunger
etc which made them weak politically hence collaborating with the colonialists
to get relief or assistance. For example the Maasai, the Chagga, the Kikuyu
etc.
8. The role of missionaries:-They played a great role to soften
the African mind by preaching them to be humble and obidient to their masters,
this lowered the African temper against colonial rule.
2. RESISTANCE
Resistance is the situation where by Africans fought in order to
oppose European invasion or colonial rule. Or is the opposition against
colonial rule or control.
FORMS OF RESISTANCE
There are two forms of resistance or reaction against colonial
rule employed/ applied by Africans and these are:
1. Active resistance
2. Passive resistance
1. ACTIVE RESISTANCE
It is the form of resistance where by Africans took arms to fight
against colonial rule, or active resistance is the one which Africans
wage war to oppose colonial rule by destructing European properties like farms,
killing Europeans and so on. Examples of African societies which applied active
resistance against colonial systems were: Nyamwezi, under Isike, Hehe under
Mkwawa and Yao under Machemba.
Why some Societies of Africa Succeeded / were
able to apply active resistance?
1. Presence of strong/ good leadership e.g. Samori Toure and
Mkwawa.
2. Strong army.
3. Strong unity among the people.
4. Good war techniques.
5. Strong organizations /political systems.
6. Powerful socially and economically.
2. PASSIVE RESISTANCE
It is the form of resistance where by Africans did not take arms in opposing
colonial rule or cooperating with colonialists. Or, Passive resistance is
unarmed or nonviolence opposition against colonial control by refusing to pay
taxes, production of cash crops, denied to work etc. an example of a society
which applied passive resistance was Pogoro who refused to involve in colonial
activities like cotton picking in southern Tanganyika.
Why some African Societies Applied Passive
Resistance not Active Resistance?
1. Poor weapons
2. Absence of strong army; presence of weak army made some African
societies to afraid to fight.
3. Weak leadership
4. Poor unity among the people.
5. Presence of natural calamities for example floods, droughts.
6. Weak social and political organizations.
Reasons Why African Societies Fought against
Imposition of Colonial Rule
1. To defend social and political sovereignty. Many societies in
Africa decided to resist colonial rule because colonialist wanted to interfere
their social and political power. So African chiefs or leaders such as Mkwawa,
Samora Toure and Kaberege etc took army to fight against it.
2. Interference of trade. Africans resisted against imposition of
colonial rule because colonialists interfered with African trade monopolies
which made Africans harsh towards colonialists hence resistance.
3. Interference of cultures. African resisted against imposition
of colonial rule since colonialists wanted to interfere African culture such as
religion, language etc.
4. Land alienation. Africans resisted against imposition of
colonial rule because colonialists took African’s land as a result Africans
took arms to fight against this.
5. Forced labour. Many African societies imposed to resist once
against colonial rule since colonialists forced them to work by force without
payment in colonial activities like farms, construction of BOMAS etc. Examples
of resistances were Majimaji, Nandi resistance, Chimulenga etc.
6. Introduction of taxation. Colonialists introduced different
heavy taxes such as head tax, cattle tax, hut taxand matiti tax where Africans
were forced to pay them as a result they resisted against the imposition of
colonial rule.
7. Harsh rule. The colonialists were very brutal and harsh in
rulling the Africans, many Africans were oppressed and killed.
8. Africans were not ready to be colonized. Africans resisted against the
imposition of colonial rule because they were not ready to be colonized since
they had their own system of governance and administration.
9. Beliefs of political and military strengths. African societies
were believed that they were powerful and strong in political and military as a
result when colonialist came they opposed against them for example chief
Machemba of Yao disobeyed Germany governor WISSMAN because he believed in his
military power.
10. Colonial social segregation and discrimination. Africans
resisted against colonialist because Africans were segregated, oppressed and
discriminated by them and treated as inferior in social, political and economic
issues as a result Africans resisted them harshly
11. Alliance / collaboration between traditional enemies with the
colonialists.
TYPES OF RESISTANCE
There are two main types of resistance namely:
I. Small scale resistance [ primary resistance]
II. Large scale resistance[secondary resistance]
I. SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE
Small scale resistance is the type of resistance which fought for
a short period of time over a small area or small group of people. Small scale
resistance normally covered a small area fought on the basis of tribal lines
occurred during penetration of colonialists i.e. the Nandi, Hehe, Nyamwezi etc.
Small scale resistance was influenced by local rulers [leaders] who organized
their small groups of people to take army against European invaders to defend
their territories.
Examples of Small Scale Resistance which will
be discussed are
1. The HEHE resistance [1891-1898]
2. The NYAMWEZI resistance [1891-1894]
3. The YAO resistance [1888]
4. The BUNYORO resistance[1893]
5. The MASAI [Kenya resistance 1895]
6. The NANDI resistance
1. THE
HEHE RESISTANCE [1891-1898]
Hehe resistance was a small scale resistance which occurred in
1891-1898 fought against Germany under the leadership of Mkwawa. Or, Hehe
resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the HEHE tribe against
Germany in 1891-1898 under the leadership of MKWAWA.
HEHE resistance was among of the strong and powerful resistance
imposed towards Germany colonial power since it fought for many years and
brought a lot of damages, sufferings and disturbances to Germany because HEHE
tribe under the leadership of MKWAWA had good war techniques inherited from the
Ngoni tribe such as cow horns, short stubbing spears and long hide. Therefore
through good war techniques HEHE under MKWAWA formed a strongest kingdom and
resisted against Germany rule than the rest resistance in East Africa.
Causes or Reasons of Hehe Resistance
1. Interference of Mkwawa’s leadership, Germany wanted to control
Mkwawa and forced him to accept Germany control due to that Mkwawa disagreed to
accept Germany rule.
2. To protect political and economical interests.
3. Interference of culture; Germany interfered Hehe culture such
as polygamy belief in many systems etc which made the Hehe under the Mkwawa
harsh hence fight against Germany.
4. Germany harsh rule; Germany ruled Hehe very harsh not
respectful to the Hehe, they forced them to pay tax, to work and took their
land as a result the Hehe fought against the Germany.
5. Killing of the Mkwawa’s delegates. Germany killed Mkwawa’s
delegates who were sent to compromise as a result Mkwawa revenged by killing
Germany commander known as EMIL VON ZELEWSKY and 300 African soldiers as a
result war started. The name Mkwawa means conqueror of lands.
6. Germany’s occupation / control several areas in Tanganyika.
Hehe under Mkwawa fought against the Germans because they wanted to control
Ugogo, Uluguru, Usagaraand Mpwapwa which had 410 economic importances to the
HEHE.
7. Blocking trade routes; Hehe resistance against Germany occurred
following Mkwawa blocking all Germany caravan routes passed his area which
disrupted the Germany trade hence conflicts started.
Due to the above reasons or causes of the Hehe resistance the
war/fighting broke out which took a long period of time. The Germany attacked
Mkwawa in 1891 following the killing of the Germany commander Emil von Zelewsky
at Lugalo. In 1894 Germany attacked Mkwawa’s capital known as Kalenga but
Mkwawa succeeded to run away [escape] and started to fight the GORRILAS WARFARE
until 1898. In the same year 1898 Mkwawa while he was hiding himself he became
sick. The Germans approached where he was hiding Mkwawa did not accept the
shame of surrender to Germany while he was alive he shot himself in July 1898
and died.
2. THE NANDI RESISTANCE
[1896-1905]
Nandi resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the
Nandi tribe in Kenya against British in 1896-1905 following the British
occupation or control over the Nandi’s land. Or, Nandi resistance was a small
scale resistance occurred in 1896-1905 when Nandi tribe in Kenya resisted
against the British control over their land organized by a leader known as KOITALEL
and ORKOLYOT.
The Nandi resistance occurred since the British invaded and
occupied [control] the Nandi land by constructing [build] telegraphic lines and
railways along the Nandi rift valley land which were fertile for crop
production and livestock keeping. The Nandi were not happy for the construction
of that railway lines and termed or called ”Iron snake”. Therefore they started
the resistance by attacking the British military position, uprooting and
cutting wires, attacking the British caravan trade, raiding the railway
deposits etc. The Nandi did that because they believed that they had the
superior weapons and military to fight British as they conquered the
neighboring territories.
The Reasons or Causes of the Nandi Resistance
1. Introduction of the railway lines along the Nandi land. Nandi
resisted against British because British constructed a railway line on the
Nandi land which they defined on it for farming and livestock keeping.
2. Land problems or alienation. British took Nandi’s best and
fertile land and gave it to the whites settlements as a result the Nandi fought
against them.
3. The Nandi’s pride. The Nandi fought against the British because
they believed that they were superior, strong and powerful socially, economically,
politically, militarily and culturally hence did not want to be controlled.
4. The pressure from Kimnyoles prophecy; the Nandi decided to
fight against the British because of the prophecy of the Kimnyole who foreseen
the coming of foreigners on their land which made the Nandi to fight against
the British after they arrived on their land.
5. The killing of the Nandi leader KOITALEL; Nandi’s resisted
against the British following the killing of their leader known as Koitalel
when he was called in the meeting of stopping the resistance.
The Effect or Impact of Nandi Resistance
1. The death of people. Nandi resistance led to the massive loss
of people’s lives including leaders such as Koitalel, Orkolyot and other
warriors.
2. British colonizing the Nandi land. The British defeated the
Nandi during resistance as a result they took the Nandi land and made the Nandi
to lost their sovereignty.
3. Destruction or damage of properties. The Nandi resistance led
to the destroying of people’s properties including land, railways, telegraphic
lines, killing of livestock, houses etc.
4. Hunger and famine. Nandi resistance led to the occurrence of
hunger [food shortage] since resistance took many years and farms and cattle
were killed during the fighting.
5. Migration of people. The Nandi resistance led to the restless
of people because during and after the resistance people run away or migrated
to other areas.
6. Land alienation. Nandi resistance led to many Nandi people to
remain landless since after the resistance British
took Nandi’s fertile land.
7. Nandi resistance led to the introduction of cheap labour, since
those Nandi people had decided to be employed as cheap labours to
the British settle farms.
8. Over grazing of some area. Nandi resistance led to the
environmental degradation since the area which the Nandi pushed or migrated
were not enough for cattle grazing.
3. THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE
1891-1894
Nyamwezi resistance was a small scale resistance against the
Germany rule organized by Nyamwezi under their leader known as chief Isike in
1891-1894. The Nyamwezi resistance occurred as a result of German’s
monopolization over Nyamwezi’s trade and passed through their land such as
Ujiji and Mwanza which broke their first good trade relation. The Nyamwezi
started resistance under their leader chief Isike in 1891 in order to avoid the
Germany control; but due to poor weapons the German attacked Isike’s fort and
destroyed it.
Chief Isike decided to blow up [kill himself] together with his
family in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by Germany. The
influence from Isike leadership. Isike was regarded as strong and powerful
leader so he organized his people to fight against German rule. The land
conflicts. Germany wanted to control the Nyamwezi’s land as they did in other
areas in Tanganyika as a result Nyamwezi resisted against the German control.
Reasons for the Failure of Nyamwezi Resistance
1. Absence of strong army.
2. Poor weapons.
3. Disunity among the people.
4. Poor fighting techniques.
5. Poor war organizations etc.
4. THE YAO RESISTANCE [1890-1899]
YAO resistance was small scale resistance which fought between the
YAO against the Germans in 1890- 1899 under the leadership of Chief MWENE MACHEMBA.
The Yao resistance was an active resistance since Machemba organized his people
actively and was able to defeat three Germany companies sent to him. After
machemba to defeat Germany companies, the German Governor forced Machemba to
leave his place but he refused as a result German took up army against machemba
and attacked Machemba’s fort in 1899. Machemba managed to escape into
Mozambique and left his fellow imprisoned as a result the Yao resistance failed
hence Germany took control over the Yao‘s southern region of Tanganyika.
The Causes of the Yao Resistance
1. Interference of Yao’s territory. The Germany wanted to control
the Yao’s territory which made Yao under Machemba to fight activity against it.
2. The conflict between Machemba and the Germany. Machemba
defeated three German companies as a result German took up army to fight.
3. Machemba’s rejection to surrender. The Germany forced Machemba
to surrender by leaving his place to the coast as a result Germany waged for
the war.
4. Introduction of taxes. The taxes were very hevy and those
failed to pay taxes were heavily punished
5. Forced labour. The German forced Yao to work without or with low payment as
a result people took up arms against Germany.
5. ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE
1888-1889
Abushiri and Bwana Heri resistance was a small scale resistance
which occurred along the coastal region of Tanganyika where by rich Arabs and
local traders organized to fight against the British and the German
interference on their trade in 1888-1889.
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Abushiri |
II. LARGE SCALE RESISTANCE IN AFRICA
It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African
resistance to European rule. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the
French. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance. People
such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance.
Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were
persuaded to rebel against the European later. Often a rekindling of
traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion. An example of
such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in Tanzania.
1. MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE 1905-1907
The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika
against the German control. This is a large and popular African
uprising in Africa. The term "Majimaji" is derived from
Swahili word "Maji" which means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn
from river Rufiji and mixed up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the
water was thrown on the various fighters so as to protect them from German
bullets in war.
The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as Kinjekitile
Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his
followers 'and began to fight in July 1905 and ending in 1907a, the Matumbi of
Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms. Majimaji uprising was highly
mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against
the German rule in Tanganyika.
It took a wide coverage' and speeded very fast from Matumbi of
Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde plateau,
Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge
plateau. In these areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni,
Bena, Mwera, Ngindo; Pogoro, Mbunga, Ndendeule and Luguru united together to
fight against German rule.
Causes of Majimaji Resistance
1. The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German
government in 1902. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton
plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little
pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under inhuman. This situation
dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans.
2. Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were
forced to work on railwayconstruction as well. as settler farms, Africans were
humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial
treatment towards Africans was inhuman.
3. The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he
Germans. 'the taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For
example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about
three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of getting money
was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different
taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the
colonial administration but this system was new to the Africans. They were also
discontented because the colonialist used their land for production while at
the same time forced them to pay taxes.
4. The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs .and
practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African
religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African
witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans
thus decided to stage resistance against Germans.
5. The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German
appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African
people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence
lived like slaves.
6. African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most
of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood. by submitting to the
Germans. The German occupation at the initial stage involved different ways
which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans realized the
need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German
foreigners.
7. Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication
exercised by German mercenaries and their house boys. These practices were
crimes to African communities and the offenders had to be punished. This was
predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the Germans and their house boys
exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and disregarded the
Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented
with these events hence took up arms against Germans.
8. The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898.
During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large -number of Ngoni
people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces.
This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking up of arms by
Ngoni’s against Germans.
9. The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with
ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by
requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders. The
Kinjekitile's force believed that they would be immune to German bullets as the
water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water. The Majimaji
resistance ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many
fighters were killed and those who survived lost the hope as the 'magic' water
had failed to protect them from German bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to
Mozambique, many were hanged while others surrendered to the Germans.
Causes for African Defeat
1. Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and
outdated guns against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like
machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as
opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.
2. The Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and
mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these
reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack
Africans strongly and effectively.
3.The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They
failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group
fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives
and grievances.
4. Failure of magic water 'Majimaji' to turn German bullets into
water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were
killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.
5. The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to
cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe
in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African
forces.
6. The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This
policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and
property/ thus famine caused deaths among –the African fighters since many of
them were starving.
Impacts of Majimaji Resistance
1. The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their
administration so as to avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms
were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes
towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg introduced some important measures to
improve Africa services, like education and health, farming and communication
system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished corporal
punishment, The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour
and began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers.
2. It brought together many African communities such as
Ngindo,Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders
3. It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used
the scorched-earth policy which involved burning of villages and crops in all
areas with African forces.
4. A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated
that between 75, 000 and 120, 000 Africans, including their leaders and
soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other people died of diseases
and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated
5. The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine
since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This
period of famine was known as funga funga period among the people of south
eastern Tanganyika.
6. The majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African
families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to
different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought
to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African
communities.
7. The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika,
because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of
resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic
differences.
REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA
1. Reaction to French
Invasion of Senegambia
French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed
against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then
under Samori Toure.
The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of
Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had
already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in
palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior.
However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the
control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the
French imperialists forces and the African rulers. The French employed a number
of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing
local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling
groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed
alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under
Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French
managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.
2. Reaction to French Invasion of
Guinea (Samori Toure)
Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and
determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was
successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized
by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his
resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking
back to the earlier period of his life.
Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a
-farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading
community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial
centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the
inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the
commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu,
Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried
by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil,
kola nuts, and ivory.
Fire arms also occupied a very important position in-this trade At
the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be
allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business
and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted
in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by' Soni 'Birama, the King of
Bisandugu. Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return
for his mother's freedom. Samori's power and leadership attracted many
followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be
independent of Soni Birama. He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and
thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and
supported, by his family.
By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone 'to the
Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the
south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious
leadership. His arm was composed of young captive r, soldiers trained mostly as
foot soldiersthe infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve
thousand fully equipped soldiers. Samori determined to defend commercial
centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular
supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the
Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through
trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful
craftsmen who repaired and even made guns.
In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards
Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and
Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off
up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized
an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements.
Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)
1. The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such
as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the
Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.
2. Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan
of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with
the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence.
Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.
3. Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire.
The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by
Samori Toure
4. The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had
reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French
therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they
claimed belonged to them.
5. Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend
commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of
firearms.
Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for
so long?
1. Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of
approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army,
trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the
permanent army.
2. Modern weapons. Samori Toure had 'excess to modern arms that he
had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them.
Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some
time. lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and
repaired his defected weapons.
3. Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and
colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their
services.
4. Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French-army where
they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond
effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of
the Army.
5. He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in
the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.
6. Samori Toure established state control of agriculture -and
markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to
the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.
7. The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes
and right raids. This' helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The
French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control
8. He used scorched earth military technique such as burning
villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they
reached the area.
9. Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national
war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.
Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated?
1. Anglo-French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had
reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori's armies up to
1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone
thus blocking Samori's access to arms supplies. In the same year British forces
occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military
alliance with Ashanti.
2. Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori
doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not
sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to
defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died
two years later.
3. Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite
together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with AImed Seku of
Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even
assisted the French in defeating Samori.
4. A disciplined and well organized army helped to defeat
Africans. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in
strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a
chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern"
societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting
techniques could never be defeated by warfare.
5. The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic
positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.
6. Instability and public misery were also a major factor in
defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness
which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands
destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine
and stirred up local resistances.
7. Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities
and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had
been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French
forces against him.
ZIMBABWE
Chimurenga Uprising 1896 - 1897
The Mashona - Matebele (Chimurenga) Uprising in Zimbabwe (1896-1897). The
whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the
Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect
them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so.
The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the
fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikaz.
The Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war.
As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more
or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the
Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In
June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated
by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the
white men.
The Causes of the Uprising
1. Land expropriation: The B.S.A.C. and the whites confiscated and
gave the white settlers the better and more fertile land of the Mashona without
consulting the local chiefs, for formerly land was considered the property of
the community and it was the chiefs' duty to distribute lands. On the other
hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves of the Shangani and Gwani,
which had water shortages and were infested with tsetse flies respectively.
Worse still, the Ndebele's population was too high to inhabit this barren land.
The situation was as the nduna Gambo said One cause of dissatisfaction and
unrest is that after we have lived many years in a spot, we are told that the
white man has purchased it and we have to go" to reserve. That incited the
people to resist.
2. Forced labour: The prevalent policy of the whites was to compel
Africans in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland to supply labour. The
commissioner in each district was given power to compel chiefs to offer
labourers in mineral and farm circles. All able-bodied men had to work
regardless of their former status in the society. This was done against their
will. Labourers were recruited by armed forces or by police who went around
into villages to seize people by force.
3. Harsh treatment: The 1893 Mashonaland and Matebeleland
situation was as Sir Martin Richard I, the resident commissioner, said:
"The system was no better than slavery." The employers and native
commissioners used the Sjambok, a kind of whip, to mistreat the local people.
The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the
mines were deplorable.
4. Taxation policies: In 1894, the Hut Tax was introduced. Some of
the Shona chiefs and their subjects refused new laws introduced by the colonial
administration as well as the British technique of collecting taxes. There were
also cases of officials' grabbing cattle, goats, and grains from the people who
could not manage to pay taxes. Tax defaulters were crucified and at times
jailed without trial or inflicted to manual labour; thus, the nature of
taxation policies, plus other discontents, prompted the Chimurenga uprising.
5. Low wages: Because the Africans were subjected to forced labour
in mines and on white farms, while they were lowly paid as return for their
toil under atrocious conditions, including the nature of the work and long
working hours. Interference in the Shona trade: The desire of the B.S.A.
company to monopolise trade in Mashonaland contributed to the uprising. The
Shona had for a considerable length of time developed a trade relationship with
the Portuguese for which they sold gold-dust, ivory for guns, and other cheap
manufactured products. The British, however, intended to possess
that commercial activity by force in which they wanted the Shona sell and buy
from South Africa. Worst still, the company wanted to control gold mining and
not in buying gold from Africans. Since the Shona failed to man the situation,
war was the only option. The Ndebele were also disturbed by the whites'
confiscation of their trade links, however local and insignificant they were.
6. The abolition of induna age regiments among the Matebele: The
Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Military towns were
outlawed and the Ndunas were deprived their power, importance and position.
Above all, it was embarrassing for the British to nominate the Shona policemen
to enforce law and order in Ndebele areas. Such social grievance, coupled with
other factors, helped to excite the Ndebele community into the uprising.
7. Favoritism: The colonial government elevated injustices in both
the Shona and Ndebele societies. There was very little justice bestowed on the
African people. Most often, the colonial government gave positions of
responsibility to people who were untrained, unsuited, and unaccepted by the
people. The administration even enacted laws that protected the white
population against the Africans. For instance" the whites had fair
punishments in comparison to those of the blacks. The traditional chiefs, who
had yielded great powers, were saddened when reduced to the lot of commoners.
The foreign police were given the responsibility to ensure observance of law
and order and maltreated the Africans,
8. Loss of cattle: Cattle were the backbone of people's
livelihood. It is believed that Lobengula possessed 250,000 cattle before his
death. The Ndebele were only permitted to keep 40,930 out of the total number,
and t many of them were offered to the volunteers or to the B.S.A.C. The others
were dispatched to South Africa. Worse still, there was a render pest outbreak
in 1895 killed nearly two million cattle. On a sadder note, it was portrayed
that some animals were shot dead on the command of the white man. Due to this
grievance and others, war was unavoidable.
9. Renderpest calamities in association with the white man's
presence: The Render pest epidemics and swarm of locusts that invaded had
dismantled food crops. Traditional religious leaders said that the Render pest
occurred due to the presence of the white men. The word spread that the
ancestral spirits were angered with the presence and activities of the white
men. In this process, the local population was provoked and finally they joined
the war of resistance.
10. Missionaries disregarded the traditions and customs of the
Shona - Ndebele people: It has been argued "the missionaries failed to
understand the attachment the Shona had for their traditional religion and
their own form of government". In Matebe1eland, the missionaries wanted
the Ndebele to alter their culture, ignoring especially their religion based on
the Mwari cult. That was the reason probably why the mission stations were
attacked during the uprising.
11. Desire for their lost independence: It encouraged hostility on
the part of the Ndebele to dismantle their monarchy. The Ndebele people
resisted in the hope of repossess their lost independence. None of the Nduna
was appointed in any responsibility of administration, and as regards the
Mashonaland, the white men had dominated even the chiefs' power to chastise the
wrongdoers. Their own discipline was extremely brutal. The uprising therefore
wanted to re attain the pre- colonial administration.
12. Jameson's raid: For long time, dissatisfactions among the
Shona - Ndebele people were piling up accumulating, but hardly ignited the war.
The immediate cause of the uprising was the Jameson's raid. In December 1895
Dr. L.S. Jameson commanded a party of policemen to capture and defeat Transvaal
for Cecil Rhodes. The Boers however, decisively overpowered him. To avoid the
shame, Jameson was returned to Britain. This was clear sign to the Ndebele that
even the British were weak and could be subdued like other African tribes.
Hence, the Shona and Ndebele adjudged to attack British. After seeing that they
were not unbeatable.
The uprising ended in 1897, but with a number of repercussions.
The Africans who were fighting to repossess their independence achieved little
success. Nevertheless, the Ndunas' importance was considered after the 1893 war
and they were appointed as officials in colonial administrative structures and
were to given remunerations. The Course of the War The Mlimo cult and the
medium spirit leaders mobilized the people in the uprising.
The Matebele mobilized the Mkwati and Siginyamotsha, who had been
most active. The Mashonaland, Banda, and Ishiwa grouped the Shona
into military regiments. The Ndebele chief priests, Ungulu, and Lobengula's
son, Nyamanda, enspirited the Ndebele uprising. Women, children, men, young and
old fight and get rid off the white men from their land. The African warriors
organised the war and took the whites by surprise and it costed the whites'
lives. By 1897, the whites with the new coordination and tactics and defeated
the Ndebele and finally the Shona
Consequences of the Chimurenga Uprising
1.The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of
them died during the confrontation.
2. The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more
fertile land and cattle as war indemnity. The company administration received
much criticizism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives.
Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.
3. The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where
they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.
4. The Ndebele indunas were considered and employed in various
administrative positions under the BSAC administration.
5. Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as
administrators in Mashonaland.
6. Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European
settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to
Shona and Ndebele.
7. Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of
Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.
8. Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no
longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning
traditional religion and adopting Christianity.
9. The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional
foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.
10. The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy
treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the
Shona persisted in war.
NAMIBIA
The Nama and Herero Uprising 1904- 1907
(Namibia)
The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in
Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880s and 1890s. The region was
inhabited by three main ethnic groups; the first and second group comprised
Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock
keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in
Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture.
The history of Namibia in the 19th century was characterized
by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and
hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since
this foreigner' s used the rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed
Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them
against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama
leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.
Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere
subordinate chief under the German government, The Nama and Herero rivalry
threatened the German missionaries.
Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over
Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government
introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904 which affected both the
Nama and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into
uprising.
Causes of Nama and Herero Uprising
1 The imposition of forced labour in 1896: Germans wanted
labourers to work in plantations and in the construction of infrastructures
such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The African communities,
that is, Nama and Herero were not used to the manual labour hence resisted to
work. The German government used a lot of force to obtain labourers Africans
were forced to work in settler farms and mines. This discontented the Africans,
thus deciding to take up arms against Germans.
2. Another reason for Nama and Hereto uprising was the cattle
raiding that was done frequently by the German traders and settlers. But cattle
was the most treasured commodity among the Herero and Nama communities, robbing
of cattle threatened the economic interest of these African commodities
3. Land alienation: This included grabbing much of the best
grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. The German government reserved
the fertile land for settler settlement. The Nama and Herero depended on this
land for cultivation and pasture; they were thrown out of this fertile land so
as to give room for construction of railway and roads. This in turn created
hostility between African communities and Germans. .
4. Imposition of taxes: the Germans imposed taxes that had to be
paid by Africans. They began to demand taxes in 1896. In order to make
effective collection of taxes, Germans used force. But the African communities
like the Eastern Herero and mbanderu, resisted by taking up arms against
Germans.
5. The destruction of traditional authority: after they had
established their contrlt over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the
region. For example, they imposed some policies without consulting the
traditional chiefs from African communities. On the other hand, the Germans did
not recognize the traditional rulers hence considered them as illiterate.
Having been discontented with this situation, the Nama and Herero decided to
resist against Germans so as to restore their traditional practice and their
independence.
6. Harassment to the Herero indebted people by the Germans
following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in
one year time, after which the debt would be invalid. Initially, the German
trader entered into commercial relationship with Africans, the Germans gained
huge profits while Africans acquired a little profit. Many Africans were in
debited by the Germans traders and were forced to pay back the debts. The
Germans also lent some money to Africans at high interest rates, they also sold
commodities to Africans on credit terms, but in most cases Africans failed to
pay the money. The Germans urged the colonial government to enact laws that
would enforce the Africans to payback the money. The law was enacted in 1903
and began to be implemented. Germans took the Africans livestock and land with
the aim of selling them to regain their money. This law disappointed the
African rulers and their subjects hence took up arms to resists against
Germans.
7. The outbreak of Rinder pest disease: It. killed about ninety percent
(90%) of Nama and Herero's cattle in 1903. This affected their economy and many
sold their idle land to German settlers to sustain their life. But the rinder
disease was interpreted by the religious leader's punishment from God since the
Nama and IIerero cooperated with the whites, hence created bad luck in their
communities, thus the people had to resist against the Germans so as to get rid
of these misfortunes.
8. The German control over the religious beliefs: The Nama
believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious' leaders
like chief Witbooi. When their beliefs were threatened by the Germans, Chief
Witbooi organized and motivated his subjects to resist against the Germans
since he believed that his army would defeat the Germans. He also promised
these people several benefits after the resistance. The Nama-Herero uprising
went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama Chief, Witbooi, was killed. Since
then the Nama unity began to decline gradually.
The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also
killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper who continued the resistance
until 1907 though the Germans reasserted their control. At the end of the
uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed' by the
Germans forces. They confiscated their cattle. and deposed all their chiefs,
the African commuriities who survived were subordinated, forced to work in
German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African
communities up to the period of the first word war.
The Effects of the Nama Herero Uprising
1. The Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to
Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could
not enable to live in a conducive environment and good life.
2. The African communities, such as the Hereto lost their life,
only 16, 000 Herero survived out of previous population of 80, 000. Whereas
only' 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20, 000 people who survived in
1892:
3. The chief township' in Namibia was officially abolished by the
German government. There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For
example, up to 1903 the number of Germans was aboutA, 640 but after the war,
the number increased up to 14, 840 in 1913.
4. Namibia became a German colony and the German administration
continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not
materialize and had Very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in
Tanganyika. .
5. The German government introduced concentration camps where
African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad
conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of
forced labour.
The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the
Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline
gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also
killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance
until 1907 though the German reasserted their control.
At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero
independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle
and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were
subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred
between Germans and African communities up to the period of the first World'
War.
CAUSES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE
There four major causes of African reaction to the colonial rule;
These includes the following
(a) ECONOMIC CAUSES
1. Land alienation; whereby Africans arable fertile- land was
taken by the colonialists and they became landless. The land was the major live
hood of African it was grabbed from them and distributed to the white settlers
and colonial state plantations as to reduce the African to mere suppliers of
cheap labor to the colonial plantations.
2. Imposition of taxation by the colonialists. From the 1898 head
tax was levied on all adult Africans in the colony of Tanganyika, at least 1
year or its equivalent this amounted to at least a month’s wage on white-owned
mine or two months or more on the white- owned farm. Later alone other taxes
like hut tax, gun tax, Matiti tax, aimed at forcing Africans to provide cheap
labor to the colonialist plantations and social service, and to facilitate
colonial administration expenditure. Such heavy taxation led to mass uprising
of the African to oppose colonialism.
3. Cattle confiscation so as to break the backbone of African
economy and to be forced to integrate into capitalist economy. The African
societies who were pastoralists that depended much on the cattle for their live
hood, people like the Herero, Masai, Sukuma, their cattle were confiscated.
4. Forced labor and forced cropping, Africans were forced to
produce cash crops and also forced to provide cheap labor, e.g. Kipande system
in Kenya. In places were production did not exist, migrant Labour was carried
out, the adult men were to move in the areas of production were only substance
wage was provided, accommodation was provided for only one person, the work's
family was there for to remain at home in some far-off rural area and try to
grow enough food to feed themselves.
5. Provision of low wages of African who worked on European farms
mines and office the major aim was to-break the self-sufficiency African rural
economy. It was no longer enough for the family to feed, clothes, and house
itself. And on top of that cash was to be found to pay taxes regardless of the
family's income.
(b) POLITICAL CAUSES
1. African local rulers were thrown from their administration and
lost control of their people and independence in general where by the
colonialist establish the notorious colonial rule. Thus resistance to the
colonial rule.
2. Africans lost their control over their trade that they
controlled and benefited from. The colonialists established the so called
'legitimate trade' which isolated the African traders, like Abushir and Bwana
Heri who lost control of trade at the coast, Jaja of Opobo, the Mandika Sarnori
all these resistance as to regain their trade control.
3. Destruction of African agriculture, which led to the problem-of
hunger and famine. The colonialists opened cash crop plantations hence
resistance.
(c) COLONIAL INJUSTICE AND
OPPRESSION
1. Corporal punishment like caning of the lazy Africans
2. Destruction of African culture and introduction of western culture
3. Racism and segregation of Africans.
4. Intimidation and violence to the Africans.
Objectives of African Resistance.
1. To regain independence and their sovereignty this had been
taken away by colonialists
2. To maintain peace and order in their society which they had
experienced before the coming of colonialists.
3. To pursue and maintain African freedom which prevailed before
the coming of colonizers.
4. To retain Africa self sustaining economy which was based on
substance agriculture.
5. To fight and get rid of foreign domination of Europeans to make
them go back to their home countries.
6. To avoid humiliation and subjugation of by the foreigners.
7. To fight against land alienation and cattle confiscation.
8. To establish African trade this had been overthrown by slave
trade and the so called legitimate trade.
QUESTIONS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION
1. “While some societies resisted the
imposition of the colonial rule in Africa others appeared to collaborate”.
Discuss this context giving concrete examples from East Africa. (NECTA-2000)
2. “African resistances against the imposition
of colonial rule failed due to Africans’ technological backwardness”. Discuss
(NECTA-2003)
3. What brought about the Chimurenga war in
Southern Rhosedia in 1896-1897? (NECTA-2005)
4. With concrete examples show why the
conflict between Africans and the whites during the colonial period was
inevitable. (NECTA-2007)
5. Through their activities the missionaries
become forerunners of colonialism. Justify this statement. (NECTA-2007)
6. The maji-maji war of 1905-1907 in
Tanganyika remains a symbol of the African struggle against colonial rule.
Justify (NECTA-2008)
7. Account for the Nandi resistance against
their land occupation by the British. (NECTA-2009)
8. With examples from East or west Africa,
show how company rule helped to create European colonization in Africa.
(NECTA-2010)
9. Account for Ethiopia’s successful
resistance against Colonialism. (NECTA-2010)
10. Account for six reasons that led to the
scramble for and partition of Africa in the second half of the 19th century. (NECTA-2011)
11. With examples, explain six reasons for
African resistances to colonial rule. (NECTA-2013)
12. Analyse six methods that were used by the
imperialist in imposing rule in Africa. (NECTA-2014)
13. “Missionaries prepared Africa for European colonization”. Discuss
(NECTA-2016)
TOPIC 2
COLONIAL
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
Background of the Colonial Administrative
Systems
The process of creating the colonies by imperial powers in Africa
was a crucial thing in the 20th century, after the
scramble for and partition of the African continent. The colonial powers that
immediately occupied Africa after the Berlin Conference were Britain, France,
Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Germany and Italy.
Although all these European powers had the same economic goals of
occupying the African continent, they did not use uniform approaches in
establishing the colonial administrations. For instance, the Portuguese, French
and Belgians applied assimilation policy in their colonies and later used the association
policy. On the other hand, the British employed indirect rule in many of her
colonies except Zimbabwe where they applied direct rule. Likewise, the Germans
in Tanganyika used direct rule as their system of administration.
Colonial administrative systems were the ways of controlling and maintaining colonial power
in colonies after the establishment of colonialism. In the early 20th century, the process of
conquest and partition of Africa were almost completed by European powers, only
Ethiopia and Liberia escaped from colonial control. Colonialists including
Germany, French, British, Portugal, Belgium etc. after colonizing African
countries they introduced different administrative systems in their colonies
depended on the following:
1. The nature of the people in the colonies, such as being
cooperative, military, strong, weak etc.
2. Challenges encountered during acquiring colonies i.e. by strong resistance,
collaboration etc.
3. The character of colonial power.for example Germany preferred direct rule
while British preferred indirect rule and French preferred assimilation policy.
Reasons Why Colonialists
Introduced different Administrative Systems after the Establishment Colonial
Rule
1. To change the form or tradition of the African system of administration.
2. To maintain or ensure effective occupation/ control of the
colony socially, politically and economically.
3. Maximization of profit through colonial exploitation by setting
up a system of administration which favored colonialists.
4. To ensure peace and harmony in colonies after faced reactions/
resistances during the establishment of colonial rule.
5. To prepare the suitable and conducive environment for
establishment of colonial economy.
6. To fulfill the agreement reached during the Berlin conference
of 1884-1885 on effective occupation of colonies.
Therefore; the reasons behind the establishment of different
colonial administrative system in Africa after colonialists managed to defeat
Africans, was due to many resistances colonialists faced while they were trying
to introduce colonial rule in Africa.
Also colonialists introduced different administrative system due
to:
1. Language problems.
2. Lack of enough manpower since they were few in number.
3. Colonialists needed a lot of fund to run their activities.
Therefore different challenges which colonialists faced during the
time of establishing colonial rule led them to apply different forms / types of
administrative systems.
TYPES / FORMS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS
1. Direct
rule
2. Indirect
rule
3. Assimilation policy
4. Association policy
DIRECT RULE
Direct rule was the form/ type of colonial administrative system
applied by the Germans where by Africans were ruled directly without local
rulers support. It was applied in Namibia, Tanganyika, Togo etc.
INDIRECT RULE
Indirect rule was the form of administrative system applied by the
British where by Africans were ruled indirectly through local rulers support.
It was applied in Uganda, Nigeria etc
ASSIMILATION POLICY
This was the French administrative system applied in her colonies
which turned Africans to be like French citizens. African who were assimilated
[changed/turned] to be French men were called Assimiladors.
ASSOCIATION POLICY
Was the French administrative system which replaced assimilation
policy which did not aim at turning Africans into French citizens instead it
considered African culture.
All the above colonial systems were different from one colonial
power [colonialist] to another. For example British preferred using indirect
rule in her colonies such as Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leon. German used her
direct rule in her colonies such as Tanganyika, Congo, Namibia, Angola and
Mozambique. French used assimilation policies in Algeria and Senegal.
1. INDIRECT RULE
Indirect rule was a administrative system applied [adopted] by the
British where by African traditional local rulers were allowed to participate
in colonial administration by implementing the colonial policies. Indirect rule
was British administrative system which used local rulers/ chiefs to implement
British colonial policies. Within indirect rule African local rulers [chiefs]
were given chances or allowed to govern their fellow Africans through orders
and supervision from British colonial government.
British indirect rule adopted in many African countries after
being succeed to implement in the Northern Nigeria in the 1900-1906 and the
whole Nigeria between 1912-1920 by British governor known as LORD LUGARD.
Therefore indirect rule was first introduced by the British governor Lord
Lugard in Nigeria in 1912-1920.
Features / Characteristics of Indirect Rule
1. Chiefs who were appointed were required to implement British policies
to their fellow Africans.
2. Indirect rule forced and collected taxes from people.
3. Indirect rule aimed at getting cheap labours.
4. Indirect rule forces British law and ordinances.
5. Indirect rule aimed at maintaining peace and harmony on behalf
of the British government.
Therefore the chiefs who were appointed to implement British
government policies became a part of British colonial government hence chiefs
were favored and given the following things;
1. Chiefs were given colonial protection.
2. Chiefs were paid salaries.
3. Chiefs were given good accommodation e.g. houses.
4. Chiefs family include sons and daughters were given good social
services i.e. education.
5. Chiefs were given gifts.
Why British Used / Applied Indirect Rule?
1. Lack of manpower. British were few in number hence used
indirect rule because it was very difficult to rule large African population
without assistance.
2. Communication problems. British adopted indirect rule because
they had no good information links with the Africans than African local rulers
such as chiefs and kings.
3. To avoid resistance. The British used indirect rule because
they wanted to avoid resistance since there was no direct contact between
Africans and British but Africans with their rulers.
4. The system was economically cheap. The African chiefs were not
directly paid by the colonial governments. Also the African chiefs could not
demand services from the colonial government such as accomodation, transport
and medical services.
5. Number of colonies. Britain had many colonies in Africa but had
very few officials to dispose in these colonies. Colonial offices were not
enough to dispose from the grass root levels and above. African natives thought
that they were still under their chiefs; orders given by the colonizers passed
through the African chiefs who reduced the impacts of the Africans.
6. The system reduced resistance from Africans. Physical
difficulties in Africa forced the British to use African chiefs. Thick forests,
hostile climate and remoteness of the area; the British found difficult to
penetrate the hinterland because of the named problems.
7. Language barrier. Some Africans could not be organized through
radio and other means of communication therefore the use of African chiefs was
efficient. The African chiefs would communicate with their people using their
people.
8. The system ensured the collection of tax from the African
communities as the chiefs lived with their people.
9. It was a suitable technique to govern illiterate African.
10. Tropical diseases which killed many British personels. e.g
Malaria
INDIRECT RULE IN NIGERIA
Indirect rule was first applied in Nigeria by the British governor
known as Sir Lord Fredrick Lugard in 1900- 1906. Indirect rule in Nigeria was
applied after British encountered [faced] a lot of challenges from big tribes
which had strong traditional administrative systems like Fulani aristocracy who
governed Sokoto caliphate by using Islamic laws in Northern Nigeria. Therefore
the British by using indirect rule which was required as a role model in the
British colonial administration. Local native leaders in Nigeria continued to
rule their traditional land, collect taxes and implement orders and duties as
assigned by the British. So British succeeded to apply indirect rule in
Northern Nigeria despite it was not successful much in Southern Nigeria in
Yomba tribe.
Through indirect rule Lord Lugard was able to control Nigeria by using their
local traditional rulling system and cooperative leaders who performed the
following activities;
1. To collect taxes.
2. To implement British laws and policies.
3. To reduce resistance from the people.
4. To reduce the political, economic and military costs.
5. To rule their land under the British control.
Despite the fact that indirect rule succeeded to rule Nigeria
especially Northern Nigeria, other areas in Nigeria like southern Nigeria was
unsuccessful due to poor and less cooperation from YORUBA land chiefs or kings
who did not organize and centralize Yoruba people since before.
Therefore the British found the following as
the failure of indirect rule in Southern Nigeria;
1. Chiefs / Local rulers of Southern Nigeria were not given
respect by the Yoruba people.
2. Local rulers were appointed to implement the British polices
but they failed i.e. collection of taxes.
3. Southern Nigerian societies had strong traditional
administrative system such as the use of chiefs for example Lagos had no
chiefdom system.
4. Southern Nigeria was decentralized than Northern Nigeria which
was more centralized.
Therefore indirect rule became very difficult to be applied in
Southern Nigeria by Lord Lugard during his six years of administering Nigeria
so as to transform it into commercial [economically] as well as politically and
to establish British protectorate by using its local rulers.
Why Lord Fredrick Lugard Applied / Prefered Application of Indirect Rule in the
British Colonies
1. Some of the African societies were centralized hence no need of
the new colonial administrative system. For example sokoto caliphat, Bugando.
2. Some of the African communities were not competent to control
themselves with the British assistance hence used indirect rule.
3. British wanted to spread their superiority complex over
Africans.
4. They used indirect rule to avoid administrative costs.
5. British wanted to avoid communication barriers, for example
language problems and poor infrastructures.
6. British were few in number so indirect rule solved the problem
of manpower.
7. Lord Lugard preferred indirect rule because it avoided
resistance and conflicts from local rulers and people.
|
Fredrick Lugard |
STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH INDIRECT RULE
Indirect rule administrative system which was applied by the
British in her colonies was arranged in different structures to ensure
effective colonial control over colony and good administrative machinery which
will prepare conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.
The structure of indirect rule was as follows;
1. Colonial secretary stayed in London [UK].
2. Governor appointed in UK and hired in colonies.
3. Provincial commissioner was a British lived in certain regions
to represent the governor.
4. District commissioner was a British [white] lived in district
level representing provision commissioner; he lived with people and
gave them orders through local rulers.
5. Local chiefs were local rulers appointed by British who were
given orders by colonial officers include provincial commissioners and district
commissioners to supervise in the daily activities and local ordinances.
6. Head men. These were Africans who received orders from local
chiefs and implement them to the people [Africans] by using force once
people resisted.
Problems / Challenges British Faced in Implementing the Use of Indirect Rule
System in Nigeria
Despite the British succeeded to rule Africans indirectly through
their local rulers, they met a number of challenges, since British indirect
rule introduced different policies and systems in Africa which was new and not
existed in Africa before such as: Payment of taxes, forced labour, land
alienation, introduction of coercive apparatus such as police, army, court etc.
The following were problems / challenges /difficulties Britain faced during
implementing the use of indirect rule;
1. Absence of centralized administration in North Eastern Nigerian
societies, such as Igbo and Yoruba were not well centralized like the Sokoto
caliphate or Buganda kingdom hence made the application of indirect rule to be
very difficult due to lack of cooperation and local rulers’ support.
2. Illiteracy of the masses. Some of the societies in Nigeria such
as the Yoruba and the Abeokuta who became independent in 1893; due to their
illiterate they organized people to oppose indirect rule.
3. Harsh British policies. Some of the indirect rule British
policies such as forced labour and taxation which was introduced to the people
were new and unpopular hence reacted by the people of Nigeria especially Igbo.
4. Opposition / resistance from the local rulers. Some of the
local rulers did not support British indirect rule for example rulers from
Yomba and Abeokuta.
5. Creation of British want/puppet chiefs. Indirect rule faced
challenges in Nigeria because British decided to create their own chiefs who
were rejected and unpopular hence people opposed against them.
6. Poor infrastructures. Absence of good infrastructures such as
roads, railways, and harbor phones made the failure to access information.
INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN TANGANYIKA
Tanganyika formerly was a German colony from 1886 after Berlin
conference. After the end of the first world war of 1914-1918 Germany lost
Tanganyika colony to British who took the victory of the war. During German
rule in Tanganyika they used direct rule system thus faced a lot of resistances
from Tanganyika societies such as Hehe resistance, Yao and Chagga resistance.
Therefore after the British took control over the Tanganyika
colony; they decided to change the former German direct rule which used Jumbes
and Akidas and introduced indirect rule. The first British governor in
Tanganyika who was known as Sir Donald Cameroon initiated and introduced
indirect rule in Tanganyika.
Sir Donald Cameroon decided to introduce indirect rule in Tanganyika due to the
influence and motivation from governor Lord Fredrick Lugard who succeeded to
control Nigeria through indirect rule so sir Donald Cameroon wanted to copy
that system of indirect rule and apply it in Tanganyika hence he met the following
challenges:
The Challenges / Difficulties Sir Donald Cameroon Faced When he Introduced
Indirect Rule in Tanganyika
1. Absence of traditional administrative system. Germany removed
all local rulers’ administration during their rule in Tanganyika, so it was
difficult for Sir Donald Cameroon to introduce them again.
2. Illiteracy and ignorance of the masses over indirect rule.
Tanganyika was controlled and ruled by the German power for a very long time
directly so indirect rule was a new system which was not known.
3. Poor organization of permanent chiefs. Few tribes in Tanganyika
recognized their chiefs and they had status and power, less executive,
financially and judiciary for example the Chagga.
4. Poor infrastructure. Indirect rule got a lot of challenges in
Tanganyika since the country was big while there was poor network and
communication links to reach and coordinate local chiefs.
5. Absence of local authorities in Tanganyika societies such as;
coastal tribes which had no traditional local authorities since Arabs’
domination which introduced Islamic law. Due to this Sir Donald Cameroon get no
support of local rulers in his administration.
Despite the fact that Sir Donald Cameroon met a lot of challenges
/ problems in the introduction of indirect rule in Tanganyika as we have seen
above, he preferred and forced to introduce indirect rule through;
1. The native authority ordinance of 1926 and
the coast ordinance of 1919. These two laws [ordinances] aimed
at creating a solid foundation for the indirect rule administration and local
authorities.
Through these two laws [ordinance] local chiefs were required and
given the following tasks and duties;
1. Tax collection such as hut tax and poll tax.
2. Chiefs were responsible for enforcing British laws and orders.
3. Chiefs were given judiciary power to enforce their decisions
according to customary laws.
3. Chiefs were responsible to implement British policies, law,
ordinances and orders to their people.
The Effect / Impact of Indirect Rule to Tanganyika
and British African Colonies
1. Exploitation of African resources:- Indirect rule was
introduced by the British for the purpose of exploiting African resources
easily through local rulers support such as land, labours and minerals.
2.Indirect rule promoted [boosted] tribalism. Indirect rule
separated African societies in ethnic/tribal identities since it favored some
tribes including those whose local rulers were given different opportunities
than the other tribes.
3. Indirect rule weakened the traditional administration systems.
Indirect rule system promoted the problem of education, health and employment
opportunities.
4. Indirect rule system introduced and widened social differences
among natives.(creation of classes in the society)
5. The system commented and centralized bureaucracy through the
use of district commissioners.
6. The greatest fault in indirect rule was that it completely
excluded from the local government the African educated elites whose number
increased over the year.
7. It made Africans hate their local rulers [leaders] who were
used during indirect rule and made Africans not to believe in them.
2. DIRECT RULE
It was a form of colonial administrative system which ruled
Africans directly by replacing African traditional, political and
administrative organizations. Or, It was form of colonial administrative system
which did not involve African rulers support i.e. Germany. Direct rule was
mainly adopted by Germany in colonies such as Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon and
Togo; also direct rule were also applied by the Belgium, Portugal etc. in their
colonies.
Characteristics of Direct Rule
1. Local chiefs were not given chances in colonial administrations.
2. It was very expensive since it needed lots of costs.
3. It faced many resistances from Africa.
4. It was not simple to control because German ruled Africans
directly.
5. It faced communication problems because of language barriers.
6. It faced problems of manpower since Germans were few in number.
Why British Used Direct Rule in some of her
Colonies Instead of Indirect Rule?
1. Presence of many whites such as in Zimbabwe.
2. Plenty of resources available in the colonies.
3. The nature of African colony. British decided to use direct
rule when Africans were ignorant, reluctant and not supportive of indirect
rule.
4. Good communication and infrastructures such as roads, railways
and harbors led the British to use direct rule.
5. Absence of strong centralized states.
6. Absence of resistances.
7. Absence of tropical diseases made the British not seek for local rulers’
support.
THE BRITISH DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe after being colonized by British in 1890’s under the
company known as British South African Company (BSACO) led by prominent
imperialist named Cecil Rhodes who ruled directly and called Zimbabwe as
southern Rhodesia due to his effort and financial resources used to occupy
shone territories.
Therefore after Zimbabwe had been colonized by British and named
as southern Rhodesia many Europeans came to live in Zimbabwe because it was a
huge country having a lot of resources such as fertile land and minerals due to
this British ruled Zimbabwe by using direct rule.
Why the British White Settlers Used Direct Rule in Zimbabwe?
1. Absence of local chiefs/ local rulers of Zimbabwe such as
Indunas were no longer existed during the resistance between British and Shona
and Ndebele.
2. Presence of many white settlers in Zimbabwe. Cecil Rhodes
influenced many white settlers to invest in Zimbabwe so there was no manpower
problem hence direct rule.
3. The richness of resources in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was a rich
colony having fertile land, minerals etc. made British to wish to rule it
directly so as to exploit resources efficiently.
4. Absence of a centralized state. Zimbabwe had no strong
centralized state since imposition of colonial rule disturbed the system hence
direct rule.
5. The effect of the Chimurenga war [Shona and Ndebele].
Chimurenga war left enemity between Zimbabwe people and the Europeans hence
difficult to involve Africans in their administration.
6. People of Zimbabwe did not want to be colonized by the British.
7. Poor support from Zimbabwe local chiefs / rulers. Local chiefs
were not happy with British since their position and status eroded during
British colonial rule that is why they did not want to support them in
administration hence British used direct rule.
Characteristics of Direct Rule Applied by the British in Zimbabwe
1. It based on excessive oppression and suppression. Africans were
highly oppressed and suppressed by British settlers through direct rule using
coercive apparatus such as police and soldiers.
2. Zimbabwe was proclaimed as a crown colony. Direct rule in
Zimbabwe made Zimbabwe as British settlers’ part and parcel of their mother
land country [Britain].
3. It based on emergence of law and order. Direct rule led to
increase of many laws and orders in Zimbabwe.
4. Direct rule led Zimbabwe to be under control of British South
African Company [BSACO] in 1890 to 1923.
5. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made educated people neglected. Direct
rule in Zimbabwe made the educated people neglected not to be involved in the
British government as a result of the armed struggle during fighting for
independence and freedom.
6. Direct rule gave settlers in Zimbabwe legislative and political
rights. British settlers in Zimbabwe were highly empowered politically,
economically and favored by laws; for example in 1923 settlers attained their
self government.
7. Direct rule alienated Zimbabwe fertile land. Through direct
rule the British settlers acquired massive fertile land left the Zimbabwean's
people landless hence provide labour in the settlers land and farms.
The British direct rule in Zimbabwe brought a lot of negative
impact to the people of Zimbabwe such as; oppression, exploitation, land
alienation, forced labour, taxation etc. as a result people of Zimbabwe took
arms [armed struggle] during fighting for independence in 1980.
Similarities and Differences between Indirect and Direct Rule
SIMILARITIES
1. Both were based on exploitation of African resources.
2. Both based on oppression of Africans through the use of force
i.e. police, army and court.
3. Both based on racial segregation since African colour was
regarded as inferior over white colour.
4. Both were capitalist systems.
5. Both aimed at colonizing /control Africans.
6. Both faced resistance or opposition from Africans.
7. Both failed to meet their demands.
DIFFERENCES
1. Direct rule was used by the Germans while indirect rule was
used by the British.
2. Direct rule did not use local chiefs while indirect rule used
local chiefs.
3. Indirect rule did not face many resistances from Africans while
direct rule faced many resistances.
4. Indirect rule was easy to manage while direct rule was
difficult to manage because of language
problems.
5. Indirect rule needed small Europeans’ manpower while direct rule needed
large manpower.
6. Indirect rule was cheap but direct rule was
expensive.
7. Indirect rule created puppet class among Africans who
cooperated with the British and support British colonialism while direct rule
did not.
3. ASSIMILATION AND ASSOCIATION
POLICY
French in her colonies such as Ivory Coast [cote devoir] Senegal,
Saint Louis and Rufisque applied two administrative systems such as
Assimilation policy and Association.
Assimilation Policy
Was an administrative system applied by French in her colonies,
which aimed at turning or transforming Africans into Frenchmen or citizens. A
person who assimilated was called Assimilador.Assimiladors was taught how to
behave or think like French people. Assimilation is a term derived from
the French word assimiler means cause to resemble. French introduced
assimilation policy to her colonies so as to spread her culture of superiority
all over the world.
Therefore the introduction or application of assimilation policy in French
colonies goes to them with the introduction of French language, institutions,
laws, religion and customs. Colonies or persons to follow assimilation policy
[assimiladors] were supposed to follow the French culture hence enjoy right
just like French citizens.
The Reasons Why French Applied Assimiliation Policy in her Colonies
1. French revolution of 1789. French applied assimilation policy
in her colonies since they said that; the French revolution which occurred in
1789 advocated for the equality, fraternity and freedom to all regardless of
Vaile or color.
2. Assimilation policy applied by the French to spread their
superiority all over the world. Since the Africans assimilated would continue
to spread French superiority.
3. To spread French culture and civilization. French applied
assimilation policy since they wanted to spread their culture through language
and customs.
4. Assimilation applied to turn African to behave like French
citizen.
5. To facilitate French exploitation. Assimilation aimed at
exploiting Africans smoothly by creating false consciousness to those who
assimilated [assimiladors] to work for the benefits of the French.
6. Cheap economically since assimilators work and behave just like
French and became passive.
Characteristics of French Assimilation Policy
1. There were to be commune representatives in the French national
assembly.
2. France were well applied in the territories.
3. The French Africans were considered as a great obstacle for
colonial rule.
4. The French administrative structure was more oppressive than
that of the British.
5. Africans were allowed to register as French citizens and they
could seek elections as deputies in Paris.
6. The French administrators were given more judicial powers in the provinces.
7. The French decided not to use African traditional institutions
in their administration.
The Effects of the Assimilation System of
Administration
1. It weakened African traditions and Islamic religion in West
Africa by introducing Christianity i.e. Roman Catholic.
2. It destroyed African traditional authorities and leaders since
assimilated Africans replaced many to the traditional leaders.
3. It undermined African culture; African culture were regarded as
inferior towards French culture which regarded as regarded as superior and
civilized for e.g. French language.
4. Assimilation policy weakened Africans traditions such as
Islamic religion in west Africa by introducing Christianity for example Roman
Catholic church.
5. Colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded
as an oversea province of France speaking people in West African still have
close relationship with the French people than their fellow African countries.
6. Assimilation policy integrated /allowed Africans to participate
in French political matters in French, Paris. Assimilation policy allowed
African to participate in France parliament for example Blaise Diagne was
elected as deputy in the French parliament.
QUESTIONS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION
1. Examine the reasons for the changing nature
of the French colonial policy of assimilation in controlling African colonies.
(NECTA-2002)
2. “African resistances against the imposition
of colonial rule failed due to Africans’ technological backwardness”. Discuss
(NECTA-2003)
3. Compare and contrast British and French
systems of administration as practiced in Africa during the colonial period.
(NECTA-2009)
4. Account for Ethiopia’s successful
resistance against colonialism. (NECTA-2010)
5. With examples, explain six reasons for
African resistances to colonial rule. (NECTA-2013)
6. Analyse six methods that were used by the
imperialist in imposing rule in Africa. (NECTA-2014)
7. Explain six differences between direct and indirect rule. (NECTA-2016)
TOPIC 3: COLONIAL ECONOMY
The European powers were motivated by a number of factors to
acquire colonies in Africa and other parts of the World during the 19th century. These factors managed
from nationalism, the need for cheap industrial raw materials, and the need for
markets for their manufactured goods as well as cheap laborers.
Hand in hand with the establishment of various administrative
institutions and structures for the administration of colonies, the colonial
powers also setup a colonial economy to facilitate the exploitation of the
natural resources of their colonies.
Colonial economy refers to the economic systems of goods and services
established during the colonial era. It comprised activities such as trade,
manufacturing, agriculture, mining, transportation and communication as well as
the establishment of financial institutions.
The colonialists introduced these kinds of economies in order to
fulfill their economic demands such as raw materials, cheap labor, areas for
investments and areas for settlement.
Characteristics of Colonial Economy
1. It was export-import oriented colonial economy specialized in
production of raw materials for the metropolitan industries and importation of
manufactured goods in the colonies.
2. It was based on the exploitation of African resources such as
man power minerals and so on.
3. It was based on monoculture system of production.
4. They specialized in the production of major commodities such as
Mauritius - sugarcane and Ghana - cocoa.
5. It involved the building of physical infrastructure such as
roads, harbours and railways for easy transportation of raw materials.
6. It was characterized by Domination of European. African role of
middlemen was suppressed instead of that European established their trade
companies.
7. Colonial production was based on coercion. The colonialists
used Africa as a dump place for their manufactured commodities such as clothes,
wine, sweets and beards. Introduction of money economy. Establishment of
processing industries such as cashewnut pupling industries.
Objectives of Colonial Economy
Colonial economies were shaped by the interests of the
metropolitan economy, therefore, they responded to the demands of the colonial
powers. Objectives of the Colonial economy were:
1. Colonies were expected to provide raw materials, both
agricultural products and minerals, to the factories of the European countries.
Examples of the agricultural raw materials includes cotton, coffee, sisal, pyre
thrum, tea, cocoa and palm oil.
2. Colonies were expected to import manufactured goods like
clothes, shoes, blankets and utensils from Europe.
3. The Colonized people were expected to provide cheap labour for
the benefit of colonial masters.
4. Colonies were also expected to be self- supporting. This means
that the colonized people were expected to raise revenues that cool support
administrative costs of colony.
5. Finally, in order to insure that exploitation of colonial
resources was done efficiently, law and order was to be maintained. This in
turn would facilitate the exploitation of resources for the benefit of colonial
master.
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Sugar Plantations |
METHODS USED TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL ECONOMY
These were three methods used to establish economy which were:
1. PRESERVATION
Under preservation the colonial economy preserved the followings:-
a) Labour unit. eg The use of family labour
b) Tradition system of production e.g shifting cultivation mixed
farming and inter cropping. This was done mainly in the peasant economy.
2. CREATION
The colonialists introduced the new elements in the pre-African
economy things which were introduced were:
1. Introduction of money. e.g Indian currency like Rupees during
Germany rule.
2. Introduction of kipande system. forced people to walk with
identification card
3. Introduction of cash crops.
4. Taxation
5. Forced labour
6. migrant labour- Migrant labours were the labours comes from the
distant areas where the labour reservations were established.
3. DESTRUCTION
1. Local handcraft industries were destructed.
2. importing ready manufactured goods to Africa.
3. Banning of local industries.
The colonialists instilled retaining some elements of pre-colonial
economy to support production of raw materials which were needed by European
example of things which preserved were Traditional tools in peasant agriculture
and families remained as the basic unit of production and precolonial relation
production feudal societies were reserved.
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Railway |
Why did Colonialists Used Preservation Method / Preserved some Traditional African Economic
Systems
1. Presence of resistance from the masses. In some areas in Africa
which were centralized were strongly resisted new colonial economies systems
e.g. disagree to pay taxes, land alienation etc.
2. Ignorance and absence of reactions of people. Colonialists
preserved some traditional African economic systems because in some areas
Africans were ignorant with a new economic system and were not ready to apply
them.
3. Reluctant/ conservativeness of the people. Some areas Africans
were not ready for the changes hence colonialists preserved their traditional
economic systems.
4. Absence of enough land. In some areas land alienation was
impossible hence colonialists left the Africans to maintain their traditional
economic systems under colonialist supervision.
5. Good traditional labour system. Some of the African societies had good
traditional labour system that is family which ensures constant supply of
labour and production which prevent colonialist to apply new economic systems.
6. Awareness of cash crops production. In some areas In Africa
including Buganda they had knowledge of practices cash crops even before
colonial rule hence colonialists preserved them.
SECTORS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
There are [5] five main factors of colonial economy introduced in
Africa;
1. Agricultural sector
- Peasant economy
- Plantation economy
- Settler economy
2. Mining economy sector. It deals with the exploitation of
minerals.
3. Transport and communication
4. Trade
1. AGRICULTURE
Types of agriculture introduced in africa during colonial economy.
I. Peasant economy / agriculture e.g. in uganda
II. Settlers agriculture in kenya and zimbabwe
III. Plantation agriculture
I. PEASANT AGRICULTURE
These are small scale agriculture productions where by a farmer
produces both food crops and cashcrops. Colonialists introduced peasant
agriculture during colonial rule for the following aims/reasons;
a) Earning cash by selling cash crops.
b) Production and producing food crops for their survival during
colonial rule.
c) To ensure that peasants [small scale farmers] are producing for
capitalists.
How Peasant Economy was
Introduced in Africa.
Introduction
of peasant, cash crop farming in Africa was difficult because of the following
reasons:
1.
African traditional was only producing food crops for direct consumption.
2.
Ignorance. Many Africans were ignorant [not aware] on cash crop
production.
3.
Readiness of the people. Many people were not ready to produce cash crops.
4. Poor
technology. Most of the peasants were using poor technology in the farming i.e.
hand hoes, axes, panga etc.
Due to
the above difficulties colonialists applied the following things in order to
introduce peasant cash crops production;
1.
Missionaries’ persuasion. Missionaries persuade Africans who converted to Christianity
to grow cash crops.
2. The
use of force. Those Africans who rejected to grow cash crops were forced to
grow cash crops through; Orders from the colonialist,
3. The
chiefs and African head men received orders from colonialists to force their fellow
Africans to grow cash crops.
4.
Through seeds distribution and cash crops planting supervision.
5.
Establishment of large farms in villages which grow cash crops where by people
were forced to work there.
6.
Restructuring of colonies.
7.
Encouraged the use of poor (crude) technologies in production i.e. the use of
hand hoes, panga, axes etc.
Characteristics of Peasant Agriculture
1. Family was the unit of production. Peasant economy was
characterized by the members of the family to be sources of labour in
production.
2. Peasant based on a small unit of land. Peasant was
characterized by practice of agriculture on a small piece of land which was
populated.
3. Peasant based on inter-cropping. Peasant practiced more than
one type of crop in a single area for food and cash crops.
4. Peasant used poor technology. The use of poor technology in
production such as hand hoes, axes and pangas were much applied in the peasant
economy.
5. Peasant used on a dense population made it hard for land
alienation to be practiced, if land alienation was used, many people would be
affected and there would be chaos in the area.
The colonial government was afraid of the centralized kingdoms
that proved to be tough against the establishment of settlers’
agriculture. Some areas were tough and unfit for white settlement i.e.
Uganda equatorial region had high temperatures that discouraged white
settlements. Certain crops i.e. [cotton and coffee in Uganda] needed great care
and could not be mixed easily with other systems of agriculture. Centralized
and strong kingdoms in Uganda proved efficiency and capability to organize and
supervise agricultural activities in their areas. These traditional chiefs were
paid lowly for supervising that activity. Taxation was imposed on the people so
that they could cultivated cash crops.
PEASANT ECONOMY IN UGANDA
Uganda was among of the first colonies which peasant economy was
introduced by colonialists. The reasons behind for people of Uganda to be
preserved to continue to practice small scale agriculture it was because Uganda
was a centralized state having good traditional and systems under feudal
relations before colonial rule. Due to that Britain did not want to disturb
that system so as to avoid resistance. Therefore they left the people of Uganda
to continue growing food crops alongside cash crops under British supervision.
Factors / Reasons Why Peasant Agriculture
Economy was Introduced in Uganda and Not other Areas.
1. Dense population. It was difficult for the British to alienate and
get huge land from the natives.
2. Problem or shortage of labor supply. Labour supply in Uganda
was a problem since traditionally family was a basic unit of production hence
colonialists introduced peasants.
3. Unfavorable climatic conditions to the Europeans. Europeans
could not be able to stay in Uganda since climatic conditions of Uganda which
was characterized by heavy rainfall, coldness and hotness were not suitable or
favorable for them.
4. The nature of crops. Peasant economy was introduced in Uganda
because the types of crops such as coffee which were grown in Uganda needed
great care and great supervision.
5. Good centralized feudal political system.
6. Readiness of the people.
7. The influence from colonial government.
8. Peasant economy was cheap and easy to control.
9. The infrastructure and the territorial problems in some areas
of Uganda and Tanganyika.
Therefore the factors/reasons above were the factors behind the
introduction of peasant economy not only in Uganda but also in north Nigeria
and Tanganyika (in Kilimanjaro, Bukoba, Mbeya).
II. SETTLER AGRICULTURE
This involved production by foreigners. These foreigners usual
presented the interests of the metropolis (i.e. their main interest were mining
and agriculture in the colonized countries). The promotion of agricultural
production was to go hand in hand With settlements in Africa, especially in
those areas that were fertile. Settlers settled in big numbers in central
Africa (Malaysia Zambia, Zimbabwe), South Africa, parts of French equatorial
Africa, French West Africa, and in East Africa (Kenya).
Features of Settler Agriculture
1. Land alienation with differently issue land ordinaries, in 1900
the land occupation ordinance was enacted in Zambia. The ordinance required
that Europeans who had been allocated land must occupy and use that land or
otherwise they would pay taxes for leaving such land redundant. In Kenya in
1597, the land regulation office set a si.. vacant land for European
settlements, in 1902, the native Land ordinance allowed the commissioner to
sell or give crown land to the Europeans, and in 19. large scale land
alienation in Kikuyu began.
2. Forced labour: The French, German land Portuguese follow a
similar policy of forced labour and unpaid labour.
3. Forced labour was required to reduce costs that were necessary
in public services. In Zimbabwe in 1897, the Nature regulation Act was passed,
forcing African chiefs to produced labourers at law coast.
4. Taxation: the hut tax was introduced in Malawi in early 1890 in
Zimbabwe in 1898, and in Zambia in 1900. In Kenya the Hut Tax was introduced in
1980, and poll tax in 1910. The intention of the tax was to cover
administrative expansion ways by which Africans would be forced to work in
European farms in order to raise money to pay their taxes.
5. Migrant labourers were transported from faraway
places to work in settler plantations.
6. The development of infrastructures to serve the
settlers.
Why Settler Agriculture Dominated in Kenya than in Uganda or Tanganyika?
1. Climatic condition. Climatic condition in Kenya made Europeans
to be attracted especially in Kenya highlands. also this areas was very
fertile.
2. Kenya was made a 'crown land' means for Europeans settlements
as results Africans were no right to own land.
3. Low population in Kikuyu highland, this made land alienation possible hence
no strong resistance.
4. Africans were prohibited to grow cash crops. This also made
British settlers to attracted in Kenya as there were competition from Africans.
5. Construction of Buganda railway which facilitated the
transportation of raw materials from interior to Mombasa.
6. Settlers were favoured in Kenya. This is because settlers came
in colonies under the influence of colonial state so the colonial state did
everything to favour them hence settlers had critical influence on colonial
government.
III. PLANTATION AGRICULTURE IN TANGANYIKA
This commodity production entailed massive exploitation of land
and intensive exploitation of African labour. The owners of the plantations
were usually capitalists In Europe employing managers to supervise production
i.e. sisal and coffee Estates in Tanganyika.
Why Plantation Agriculture was Established in
Tanganyika
1. Due to change of colonial masters. In the beginning Tanganyika
was under Germany but after the 1st World war Tanganyika
became under the British.
2. The interests of the British colonial governors in Tanganyika.
For example sir Byatt 1919-1924 from Somali and Donald Cameroon from Nigeria;
these were committed to peasant or plantation agriculture rather than settler
economy.
3. Tanganyika had a large areas where settler agriculture was not
suitable to manage it but; they settled only on highlands around Kilimanjaro,
Usambara and South Western highlands of Iringa and Tukuyu.
4. There was no settler policy in Tanganyika as in Kenya policy
was committed to African production.
5. There was no good and efficient transport and communication; it
was not very much provided in this particular sphere of influence.
MINING ECONOMY
Mining was another area of colonial economic activity; among of
their demands was obtaining minerals in Africans such as Gold. Examples of
areas where mining economy was taking place were;
1. South
Africa
Kimberly
-diamond discovered in 1867.
Wit
water- gold discovered in 1886.
2. East
Africa
Mwadui
[Tanganyika] -diamond
Geita
and Musoma - gold
Copper
at Kimbe in Uganda.
3.
Central Africa
Southern
Rhodesia - gold and coal
Belgium,
Congo - copper, tin, zinc and lead
Zambia -
copper and lead
Angola -
diamond and oil
4. West
Africa
Northern
Nigeria - coal mines at the tin mines in Josh plateaus.
Ghana
gold mines
Effects of colonial economy to the Africans
Colonial economy in Africa had
both positive and negative effects on the African people:
§ Africans inherited infrastructure from the
colonial governments e.g. roads, railways, that were used for carrying goods
and labourers.
§ After the independence of African countries
nationalisation of plantations, buildings under the colonial governments
started. Buildings, plantations and harbours were now under the African states.
§ It led to the introduction of new varieties of
crops from outside e.g. varieties of cotton from America, and coffee.
§ Africans inherited European economic plans which
continued to be used after independence e.g, the treatment of labourers.
§ Africans were impoverished due to exploitation
by the colonial governments.
§ African technology declined due to the
destruction of local industries.
§ Some areas that were known for producing labour
were under developed due to rationalisation, e.g Kigoma in Tanganyika.
§ Africans inherited capitalist elements from
their colonial masters in some areas like Kenya and Zimbabwe.
§ It led to Europeans taking natural resources
from Africa e.g. minerals, raw materials through an unequal exchange.
QUESTIONS FOR
GROUP DISCUSSION
1. How did the colonial government ensure constant supply of
labour in their colonies in East Africa? (NECTA-2000)
2. Why was settler economy a success in Kenya but failure in
Uganda? (NECTA-2002)
3. How did colonial economy differ from the pre-colonial economy?
(NECTA-2004)
4. Describe briefly the common characteristics of settler and
plantation agriculture in colonial Africa. (NECTA-2005)
5. How did the colonial state uphold the interests of white
settler in Kenya? (NECTA-2006)
6. Identify six factors which determined the variation of
agricultural systems during the colonial period. (NECTA-2012)
7. Analyse six tactics used by the colonialists to establish colonial
economy in Africa. (NECTA-2013)
8. “Migrant labourers were very useful to the capitalists during
colonial economy in Africa.” Substantiate this statement by giving six points.
(NECTA-2014)
OTHER QUESTIONS
1. Show how settler helped colonial government in Kenya
2. Differentiate between pre colonial and colonial
economy
3. Discuss the mechanism, used by colonialists to break up
the natural indigenous economy of East African people.
4. Using concrete examples of any East African society show
the pattern of the physical and social infrastructures were determined by the
system of the colonial economy.
5. How did the colonial Government ensure constant supply of
labour in their colonies in East Africa?
6. Why was the settler economy a success in Kenya but a
failure in Uganda?
TOPIC 4
COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
rading
activities in Africa was nothing as it involved for a long time. The
pre-colonial African trade was also based on exchange of goods for goods. So
after colonial trade, the trading activities was characterized by the following
points
Characteristics of Colonial Trade
1. It was organized and colonial conducted the government and the
imperial trading companies for example;
- ImperiaL British East African Company [IBEACO].
- German East African Company [GEACO].
- British South African Company [BSACO].
- Royal Niger Company [RNCO] land international association.
2. The dominant of colonial trade was Arabs and Indians in east
Africa and Syrians and Lebanese in West Africa other than Africa.
3. It based on exploitations of raw materials such as minerals and
agricultural products.
4. Money became the means of trading this was replaced the
pre-colonial barter trade.
5. It established marketing boards so as to control trade
transaction and prices of the commodities.
6. It based also on creation of storage facilities aims to store
commodities and raw material.
TOPIC 4
COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
Colonial social services were the services that were provided purposely to accelerate
colonial exploitation and improve the welfare of colonial civil servants during
colonial period.
A number of social services were developed by different colonial
powers in their African colonies. These included provision of Western
education, medical services, water services and housing. However, most of these
were meant to make the lives of the Europeans as comfortable as possible. The
services were provided to European governor's traders, and missionaries, but
very scarcely to the Africans. The Christian missionaries, in particular,
played an important role in the provision of social services to the African
communities during colonialism.
In general, the colonial social services included the following:
- Colonial education
- Transport and communication
- Recreational services
- Water and electricity
- Health services
1. COLONIAL EDUCATION
Colonial Education was a process by which people get knowledge,
skills and values that were necessary for the mastering of social, political
and economic situation under colonial rule. Colonial education was provided in
schools and colleges belonged to either the colonial governments or the
missionaries in areas that mainly produced raw materials. It replaced informal
or traditional education which existed before colonialism.
The Aims of Colonial Education in African
Societies
1. To expand the market for the manufactured goods from Europe.
2. It aimed at creating African staff to work in the white color
jobs such as clerks and foremen.
3. It aimed at creating elite who had to be loyal to the
colonialists.
4. It aimed at providing the knowledge which could help Africans
production of the raw materials.
Features of Colonial Education
1. It was pyramidal in shape. The colonial education was
pyramidally provided. This means that the number of pupils decreased as the
pupils reached the upper educational standard.
2. It was segregative. This education was segregative in the sense
that only the sons of chiefs were given education while girls were not given
education. School were runkers according to races. e.g There were special for
the sons of chiefs.
3. It was bookish in nature It was mainly theoritical education.
4. It was for the white colar- Jobs education.
5. It was irrelevant to the African environment. The education
taught the learners what was present in Europe and not in Africa.
Impact of Colonial Education
Although this education led to the improvement in African lives in
many aspects, its impacts are enormous.
1. Many Africans were left illiteracy due to the small number of
Africans that were benefited with the education provided. Educated people were
alianated from the society. Many people turn their back of African traditional
since they adopted cultural values of European society example, ways of dressing
and dancing, language as well as eating mannerisms.
2. Deduction of patriotism among the Africans. Those Africans who
received the colonial education denounced the Africans and hence become
suro-Afro descendants. This mainly happen in French colonies in West Africa
where the elites denounced their fellow Africans simply because they had
received colonial education.
3. Prepared Africans for colonialism. Africans to
accept colonialism. In their areas for example the elites psychologically were
prepared to accept the colonial administration as they were given chances in
the colonial government as party and parcel of the colonial administrators.
4. Colonial education created hatred between the educated and
non-educated people. This happened when the educated people segregated and used
defamatory language to non-educated.
5. Colonial education created the base of disunity and
tribalism in Africa.
6. Led to the spread of Western civilization.
2. WATER
AND HOUSING SERVICES
Motives for Provision of Water and Housing
Services
1. Provision of water and housing services during colonialism was
to facilitate the economic interests of the metropolis.
2.These services were provided on racial bases where the Europeans
were given the best quality as opposed to Africans who received poor housing
and water services.
3. Provision of water and housing services during colonialism was
meant to encourage the European settlement.
Distribution Pattern of Water and Housing
Services
Political administrative and economic functions determined the
nature of housing and water serviceprovided to the residents. Many Africans
were attracted to move to urban centers after the World War. In Bulawayo,
Southern Rhodesia, some 4000 African male workers and unknown number of women
and children were reported to have been housed in squatter settlement by late
1930. Africans lived in slums and were scattered in different parts of the
capital city.
Such slums were made using cheap materials poles, grass and tins.
Dar-es Salaam encountered unemployment problem. The population increased but
the number of houses did not increase. Many slums emerged at the begging of
colonialism. Example in Nairobi Kenya slums were scattered while the Europeans
settled in better- drained neighborhoods. Conditions of living in the rural
areas were becoming difficult especially in the white settler colonies. Where a
lot of African land was alienated.
There also was great pressure for Africans to pay taxes. Africans
who lived in urban centres were overcrowded, the wages paid were much better
than in the rural areas. Improvement in transportation also encouraged mobility
to the urban centres. The introduction of passenger buses and train coaches
facilitated the movement towards the urban centres especially in colonial
Tanganyika.
Impact of the Provision of Colonial Water and Housing Services
1. Africans viewed urban centers as a place for temporary
settlement after which one would go back to the rural areas as most of the
service were provided for the Europeans.
2. Due to fewer houses in urban centers, Enterprising Africans
construct logging houses.
3. Slums emerged due to lack of adequate shelter. In these houses,
illicit activities such as the sale of illegal liquor, theft and drug
trafficking take place All these contributed to the emergence of nationalism
against colonial injustice. example, Mau mau liberation war.
4. African civil servants in the colonies got better housing and
water services after the second World War.
5. Racial discrimination in the provision of water and housing
services contributed to the emergence of African Welfare Associations in Urban
centres like Dar- es -Salaam.
6. Diseases such as pneumonia, diarrhoe and malaria affected
Africans due to poor water services and housing available for African
communities. Many Africans died as a result of poor condition of living in
colonial urban centres. Also prostitution became widespread in colonial urban
centres result to move social problems such as spread of sexually transmitted
diseases.
3. COLONIAL HEALTH SERVICE
This involved the provision of medical needs to the white men and
colonial subjects it was affected by the construction of government and
missionary hospitals, dispensaries in the colonies mostly were found in key forces
stations like in armed forces stations, in production areas andUrban centers
Objectives of the Colonial Health Services
1. Health services aimed at giving medicine to Africa peasants and
labors in order to maintain the labour power.
2. Were designed in order to improve the living standards of the
whites since they received the best services than the other races.
3. Aimed at destroying the African medication services.
4. Aimed at preventing and cure the white imposed diseases such as tuberculosis,
sexually transmitted diseases etc.
5. Aimed at maximizing the interests of capitalism in Africa.
Features of Colonial Health Services
1. Many hospitals or dispensaries were built in urban areas,
plantations areas and in areas which had settlers farms i.e. Tanga,
Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Bukoba
2. Had racial discrimination i.e. the whites received the best
health services followed by Asians and Africans.
3. The hospitals / dispensaries only provided western medication.
4. Highly medical personnel were the whites e.g. the British,
French, Portuguese, Belgians etc Africans served as dressing sweepers and other
lower rank jobs.
5. They were religious biased i.e. there were catholic hospitals,
Lutheran hospitals etc.
The Impact of Colonial Health Services
1. Expanded the market of the western capitalism industry in
Africans consumed various medicine from Europe.
2. They maintained the labor power for peasantry settler and
mining sector of colonial economy.
3. Provided employment to their people in Africa.
4. African herbs were almost replaced by the consumption of
western medications.
5. Strengthened classes during the colonial period i.e. the white
civil servants, settlers and managers got high quality health services while
the African received poor health services.
Other social services were such as; Electricity, Water,
Infrastructure and Housing.
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